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Any large company must have a motivational and incentive system for employees in order to achieve the main goals of the company and increase overall income. This system is a series of specific incentives that increase the performance of qualified employees.
There are different theories of motivational systems that apply to a specific type of enterprise. In order to effectively achieve the main goals in the organization, it is necessary to organize a unified set of incentives, taking into account all existing theories. This article will help you learn more about this issue.
Motivation and its benefits
Motivation comes from enjoying the work itself and the desire to achieve certain goals, such as earning more money or achieving a promotion.
In short, people's behavior is determined by what motivates them. Employee performance is the result of their abilities (such as skills and experience) and motivation. A talented employee who feels unmotivated is unlikely to perform well, while a motivated employee can often do much more than is expected of him.
In other words, employees have certain needs or desires and this causes them to do certain things (behaviors) that meet the needs (satisfaction), and this can then change which needs and desires are primary.
A well-motivated team can provide the following benefits:
- Better performance. This can lead to a reduction in the cost of the company's products, thereby allowing the organization to sell its product at a lower price and gain an advantage in the market.
- Lower absenteeism rates as employees are satisfied with their work life.
- Reduced staff turnover (the number of employees leaving the business). This can lead to lower training and recruitment costs.
- Satisfied employees give a company a good reputation as an employer, which makes it easier to find the best talent.
- Motivated employees can improve product quality and customer service.
What are the theories of motivation?
At a simple level, it seems obvious that people do things, such as going to work, to get what they want and avoid what they don't want. Why exactly they want what they do and don't want what they don't is still a mystery. It's a black box and it's not completely open yet.
In general, the basic view of motivation looks something like this:
There are several directions in theories of motivation:
- Content theories
- Process theories
Content theories focus on WHAT motivates, while process theories focus on HOW a person's behavior is motivated.
Content theories are the earliest theories of motivation. In the workplace they have had the greatest influence on management practice, while in academic circles they have been the least accepted. Content theories are also called need theories: they attempt to define our needs and link motivation to the satisfaction of those needs. Content theories cannot fully explain what motivates or demotivates us. Process theories are concerned with how motivation occurs and what process can influence our motivation.
Main content theories: Maslow's hierarchy of needs, McClelland's theory, Herzberg's two-factor theory and others.
Basic procedural theories: Skinner's theory, Vroom's theory, Adam's theory of justice, Locke's theory of goal setting and others.
No theory of motivation explains all aspects of people's motives, or lack thereof. However, each theoretical explanation can serve as a basis for the development of motivation techniques.
Modern theories of personnel motivation
Currently, we can distinguish 3 main groups of theories of motivation: initial, substantive, procedural.
Initial theories of motivation are based on the use of simple coercive incentives, material and moral incentives for workers.
The theory of “carrots” and “sticks” (positive and negative motivation) is widely known, according to which employees clearly know what they can be rewarded for and what they can be punished for.
The main tenet of the original theories of motivation is the use of positive or negative incentives depending on the results of job evaluation and employee behavior.
Example: The Regulations on material incentives for employees of an organization provide a list of grounds and forms of rewards and punishments for employees for performance results.
A development of the “carrot” and “stick” theory is the “X” and “Y” theory of D. McGregor. From the point of view of motivation, two groups of employees have been identified: employees of type “X” and employees of type “Y”, who have different needs and motives (Table 1).
According to the theory of “X” and “Y”, when motivating employees, it is necessary to take into account the state of their level of consciousness. Managers should strive to develop a group, if it is not sufficiently motivated, from state "X" to state "Y".
Theory “Y” was developed in the works of German scientists W. Siegert and L. Lang, who noted the importance of awareness, freedom of action and the significance of the employee’s workplace for motivating his work activity.
The theory of “X” and “Y” was further developed in the works of V. Ouchi, who substantiated the importance of the team in motivation. The main provisions of the “Z” theory of motivation by V. Ouchi are the provisions on the combination of social and biological needs in the motives of employees and their preference to work in a group and apply the group decision-making method. Thus, a good employee prefers to work in a group and have stable performance goals for the long term.
Workers described by theories “X”, “Y” and “Z” form different groups of people and have different motives of behavior and incentives to work.
As a rule, all types of workers are represented in an organization, and the application of one or another motivation concept is determined by the proportion of workers of a particular type in the group.
Thus, the application of the original theories of motivation in practice makes it possible to ensure high-quality performance of job duties by an employee, but does not contribute to the formation of a person’s internal motivation for effective work.
Content theories of motivation are based on the identification of needs that cause people to act in a certain way. The most famous are the theories of Maslow A., Alderfer K., McClelland D., Herzberg F. Each of the authors offers its own classification of needs that have the greatest impact on a person’s work activity.
According to substantive theories, management of work motivation consists of identifying the dominant human need and developing measures to satisfy it (Fig. 1).
Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory A. According to this theory, human behavior is determined by needs, which can be divided into five groups and arranged in a strictly hierarchical structure (Fig. 2).
According to A. Maslow, a person is an “eternally wanting creature”: when a lower need is satisfied, a higher one becomes dominant. Consequently, in terms of the power of influence on the employee’s behavior, the dominant needs will be those located directly above only satisfied needs.
However, as practice shows, hierarchical levels are not discrete steps. People tend to start looking for their place in the community long before their safety needs are met or their physiological needs are fully satisfied.
K. Alderfer's theory. Clayton Alderfer grouped human needs into three groups:
- Existence needs;
- Communication needs;
- Growth needs.
The need groups of this theory correlate with the need groups of Maslow A.'s theory. Existence needs include safety needs and physiological needs; group of communication needs - belonging and involvement; growth needs - needs of self-expression.
However, in contrast to Maslow A.'s theory, Alderfer K. believed that movement goes in both directions: upward, if the need of the lower level is not satisfied, and downward, if the need of the higher level is not satisfied. Alderfer K. calls the process of moving up the levels of needs the process of satisfying needs, and the process of moving down – the process of frustration, i.e. defeat in the desire to satisfy the need (Fig. 3).
Example: If an organization does not have sufficient funds and capabilities to satisfy a person's growth needs, then, out of frustration, he may turn to communication needs with increased interest. In this case, the organization will be able to provide him with opportunities to satisfy this need, thereby increasing the potential for motivating this person.
McClelland D.'s theory of needs. McClelland D. identifies three needs that have the greatest impact on an employee's performance: power, success, and participation (Table 2).
The needs of participation, achievement and power in McClelland D.’s concept are not mutually exclusive: the manifestation of the influence of these needs on human behavior strongly depends on their mutual influence.
Example: If a person is in a leadership position and has a high need for power, then for successful management activities it is desirable that his need for complicity be relatively weakly expressed.
Herzberg's theory of motivation. In the literature, F. Herzberg's theory of motivation is often called the theory of motivational hygiene or the theory of “social man”. Herzberg F. identified two groups of incentives for intensifying a person’s work activity: hygienic, motivational (Table 3).
Hygiene motives are motives that create the mood for work; they can be both motivators and demotivators of work activity.
Example: A low level of wages is, as a rule, a demotivator of work activity, and wages in accordance with the specific results of a person’s work are a motivator.
The manager's goal is to create conditions so that hygiene factors become motivators of work activity. F. Herzberg considers motivating factors to be those that always contribute to increasing the efficiency of workers.
Consequently, if we eliminate the factors of employee dissatisfaction with the work environment, then it is possible to form the motives of his work activity using factors of job satisfaction.
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Table 4 shows the basic principles of enriching the content of work to motivate work activity.
Thus, the application of substantive theories of motivation in practice consists of identifying the dominant need of an employee and developing incentive measures to satisfy it in order to increase the efficiency of work activity.
Process theories of motivation are based on the assumption that an individual's behavior is a function of his perceptions and expectations associated with a particular situation and the possible consequences of his chosen type of behavior.
There are three main procedural theories:
- expectancy theory;
- theory of justice;
- reinforcement theory.
Vroom V.'s expectation theory is based on the position that the more an employee's expectations are met, the more effective his work will be. V. Vroom identifies 3 main expectations of an employee in the labor process: that his labor efforts bring concrete results, according to which he will receive the expected reward (Fig. 5).
It is important to highlight the concept of “valence” as the expected degree of relative satisfaction (dissatisfaction) that arises when receiving a reward. If there is no direct connection between the effort expended and the results achieved, then motivation will weaken.
Example: In practice, for effective motivation, a manager must clearly formulate the employee’s work goals and the expected results that he should receive in the work process; establish a clear relationship between achieved results and rewards; formulate what types of remuneration an employee can expect.
S. Adams' theory of justice. According to equity theory, people subjectively determine the ratio of reward received to effort expended, and then relate it to the rewards of other people doing similar work. If a comparison shows that a colleague received more compensation for the same work, then the employee experiences psychological stress; to restore justice, it is necessary to either change the level of effort expended or change the reward.
Experts note that usually when people believe that they are not being paid extra, they begin to work less intensively. If they feel they are overpaid, they are less likely to change their behavior and activities.
B. Skinner's motivation enhancement theory shows the dependence of employee motivation on their past experience. According to his theory, the presence of incentives causes a certain behavior in a person, depending on the consequences of which it is repeated or not. Repeated repetitions of the same results lead to the formation of a certain behavioral attitude in a person.
Example: A manager must anticipate the psychological impact of the consequences of employees performing the tasks he gives them, and set achievable goals for them, the implementation of which can cause a positive psychological effect in them.
Porter-Lawler model. Porter L. and Lawler E. in their theory of motivation combined elements of the expectancy theory and the theory of justice (Fig. 6).
According to this model, the results achieved depend on the efforts made, abilities and characteristics of a person, as well as on his awareness of his role in the labor process. The level of effort expended, in turn, depends on the value of the reward and the extent to which the person believes that there is a strong connection between the effort expended and the possible reward. Achieving the required level of performance may entail internal rewards (satisfaction from the work performed, a sense of competence and self-esteem) and external rewards (supervisor praise, bonus, promotion).
Satisfaction is the result of external and internal rewards, taking into account their fairness. Without satisfaction there can be no effective work.
Atkinson D.'s theory of work motivation is based on the position that employee behavior is the result of the interaction of individual qualities of a person and the situation of his perception. Every person has two motives - a motive for success (Mu) and a motive to avoid failure (Mn). These motives are quite stable and are formed in the process of learning and work; they manifest a person’s desire for a certain level of need satisfaction.
In addition to personal qualities, a person’s behavior is influenced by two situational variables: the probability of success with which the employee expects to complete his activity (Vu), and the attractiveness of success (the value of the incentive) for the individual (Pu). Moreover, the attractiveness of success is directly related to the probability of success:
Pu = 1 – Wu (1)
Thus, the higher the probability of success, the lower its attractiveness.
The desire for success (Su), which expresses the strength of motivation, can be expressed by the following formula:
According to this formula, the desire for success will be maximum when the probability of success is 0.5, since the product Wu x Pu in this case is maximum. But when determining the desire for success, it is necessary to take into account the motive for success, which is expressed differently among different employees.
Any specific situation activates the motive for success and at the same time the motive that encourages Mn to avoid failure. In this case, the sum of the probability of expecting success Wu and the probability of failure Bn is equal to 1.
According to Atkinson D.'s theory, individuals who are more success-oriented prefer tasks of average complexity, since in this case the degree of risk is lower, although the attractiveness of success is less. At the same time, employees who accept failure for the sake of the high attractiveness of possible achievement of the goal prefer extreme tasks on the principle of “do or die”; such employees belong to the so-called “risky” personality type. It is advisable to entrust the first group of employees with those tasks that absolutely must be completed within the allotted time frame, while the second group of employees is best used when it is necessary to find atypical solutions.
Thus, procedural theories of motivation are aimed at developing such work behavior of an employee that will ensure the effectiveness of his work activity. Process theories of motivation are more universal compared to substantive theories of motivation, but, unfortunately, do not take into account the entire range of human needs.
At the end of the 90s of the twentieth century, the Russian scientist V.I. Gerchikov developed a typological model of personnel motivation (Fig. 7), which takes into account both the motivation and type of labor behavior of the employee.
As can be seen from Fig. 7, the author distinguishes between achievement motivation (an employee’s desire to achieve certain goals and receive a reward for this) and avoidance motivation (the desire to avoid punishment for failure to complete assigned tasks or unsatisfactory performance of functions).
In the case of achievement motivation and active work behavior of an employee, the increase in the efficiency of his work activity will be proportional to the degree of satisfaction of motivational expectations (I quadrant). At the same time, if organizational working conditions and the incentive system run counter to the motivational expectations of an employee with an achievement type of motivation, then there is a high probability of his destructive work behavior (IV quadrant).
In the case of avoidance motivation, subject to the employee’s active labor behavior, the increase in the efficiency of his work will be limited by the task (normative value) and the manager’s ability to prove the employee’s guilt in case of failure to complete the task (Quadrant II); with passive labor behavior, the employee can only be expected to “work according to the rules” (Quadrant III).
According to this theory, there are five personality types of workers depending on the type of motivation: instrumental, professional, master's, patriotic (achieving) and lumpen (avoidant).
In order to increase the efficiency of labor activity of different types of workers, it is necessary to select appropriate incentives.
Content theories
Maslow's theory
Maslow focused on the psychological needs of employees. He theorized that there are five levels in the hierarchy of human needs that employees must perform at work.
All needs are structured into a hierarchy, and only after the lower level of needs is fully satisfied will the employee be motivated to satisfy the next need in the hierarchy. For example, a person who is dying of hunger will be motivated to earn a basic wage to buy food before worrying about having a secure employment contract or the respect of others.
| Necessity | Mostly | In progress |
| Self-realization | Education, religion, hobbies, personal growth | Training, promotion, growth, creativity |
| Respect | Approval from family, friends, community | Recognition, high status, responsibility |
| Involvement | Family, friends | Colleagues, clients, managers, subordinates |
| Safety | Freedom from war, violence | Occupational safety, health insurance |
| Physiology | Food, water | Heat, air, basic salary |
How to use in practice
Satisfying basic work needs such as a convenient place to work, a decent salary, insurance will help employees move up the pyramid and therefore be more efficient, creative and creative. Therefore, the main task of the employer is to provide employees with comfortable working conditions.
The company must offer various incentives to employees to help them satisfy each need in turn and move up the hierarchy. Managers must also recognize that not all employees are motivated in the same way and not everyone moves up the hierarchy at the same rate. Therefore, you may have to offer a slightly different set of incentives for different employees.
The main points in Maslow's theory:
- Employees are motivated by satisfying each level of needs in the order in which they move up the hierarchy.
- Levels of needs: physical, safety, social, self-esteem, self-realization.
- The company must fully satisfy the more basic level of needs of employees before they are motivated to achieve higher levels of needs.
Herzberg's theory
Herzberg had close ties to Maslow and believed in the two-factor theory of motivation. He argued that there are certain factors that a business can implement:
- Factors that directly motivate employees to work more (motivators);
- Factors that could motivate an employee, but in themselves would not motivate employees to work more (hygiene factors).
Motivators relate more to the work itself. For example, how interesting the job is and how many opportunities it provides for additional responsibility, recognition and promotion. Hygiene factors surround the work. For example, a worker will only work if the company has provided reasonable wages and safe working conditions, but these factors will not make him work harder.
Herzberg believed that businesses should motivate employees by adopting a democratic approach to management and improving the nature and content of actual work through certain methods.
How to use in practice
- Expand job responsibilities – employees are given more varied tasks (not necessarily more complex), which should make the job more interesting, rather than increase the workload.
- Teamwork involves giving workers a wider range of more complex and complex tasks related to the project. This should give a greater sense of achievement.
- Empowerment gives employees the ability to make their own decisions about their work lives.
The main thing in Herzberg's theory:
- Employees are motivated to work more if they have, for example, more responsibility, more interesting work, more praise for good work.
- Employees may become demotivated if hygiene factors are not met, such as pay, working conditions, relationships with colleagues.
Currently, there are 3 main groups of theories of motivation:
• initial
,
• substantive
,
• procedural
.
ORIGINAL THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Initial theories of motivation are based on the use of simple coercive incentives and material and moral incentives for workers.
The theory of “carrots” and “sticks” (positive and negative motivation) is widely known, according to which employees clearly know what they can be rewarded for and what they can be punished for.
The development of the theory of “carrot” and “stick” is the theory of “X” and “Y” by D. McGregor. This theory includes two opposing concepts (see Table 1).
Table 1. Theory of motivation by D. McGregor
“X”
| "Y" | |
| • Biological needs predominate in motives; • A person does not like to work, so labor must be rationed, and people must be forced to work; • The person prefers to work to be controlled, tries not to take responsibility, has relatively low ambitions and wants to be in a safe situation; • The quality of work is low, so constant strict control is required. | • The motives are dominated by social needs and the desire to work well; • For a person, work can be a source of pleasure, or it can be a punishment, depending on the conditions; • Usually a person is ready to take responsibility; • Many people are willing to use their knowledge and experience in their work; • External contacts and the threat of punishment are not the main incentives; • The most important rewards come from satisfying self-expression needs. |
| Main incentive: • coercion. Auxiliary stimulus: • financial incentives | Main incentives: • self-affirmation; • moral and material encouragement. Auxiliary incentives: • coercion. |
According to the theory of “X” and “Y”, when motivating employees, it is necessary to take into account the state of their level of consciousness. Managers should strive to develop a group, if it is not sufficiently motivated, from state "X" to state "Y".
Theory “Y” was developed in the works of W. Siegert and L. Lang, who noted the importance of awareness, freedom of action and the significance of the employee’s workplace for motivating his work activity.
The theory of “X” and “Y” was further developed in the works of V. Ouchi, who substantiated the importance of the team in motivation. The main provisions of the “Z” theory of motivation by V. Ouchi are the provisions on the combination of social and biological needs in the motives of employees and their preference to work in a group and apply the group decision-making method.
Thus, a good employee prefers to work in a group and have stable performance goals for the long term.
Workers described by theories “X”, “Y” and “Z” form different groups of people and prefer different motives of behavior and incentives to work. As a rule, all types of people are represented in an enterprise, and the application of one or another motivation concept is determined by the proportion of workers of a particular type in the group.
SUBSTANTIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Content theories of motivation are based on the identification of needs that cause people to act in a certain way. The most famous are the theories of A. Maslow, K. Alderfer, D. McClelland, F. Herzberg. Each of the authors offers its own classification of needs that have the greatest impact on a person’s work activity. According to substantive theories, management of work motivation consists of identifying a person’s dominant need and developing measures to satisfy it (see Fig. 1).
Rice. 1.
A. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory
According to this theory, human behavior is determined by needs, which can be divided into five groups and arranged in a strictly hierarchical structure (see Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Motivational model of A. Maslow
According to A. Maslow’s definition, a person is an “eternally wanting creature”: when a lower need is satisfied, a higher one becomes dominant. Consequently, in terms of the power of influence on the employee’s behavior, the dominant needs will be those located directly above only satisfied needs.
However, as practice shows, hierarchical levels are not discrete steps. People tend to start looking for their place in the community long before their safety needs are met or their physiological needs are fully satisfied.
K. Alderfer's theory
Clayton Alderfer combined human needs into three groups: 1. Existence needs; 2. Communication needs; 3. Growth needs.
The needs groups of this theory correlate with the needs groups of A. Maslow’s theory. Existence needs include safety needs and physiological needs; group of communication needs - belonging and involvement; growth needs - needs of self-expression.
However, in contrast to the theory of A. Maslow, K. Alderfer believes that the movement goes in both directions: upward, if the need of the lower level is not satisfied, and downward, if the need of the higher level is not satisfied.
K. Alderfer calls the process of moving up the levels of needs the process of satisfying needs, and the process of moving down the process of frustration, i.e. defeat in the effort to satisfy the need (see Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Scheme of ascent and reversal of K. Alderfer’s hierarchy of needs
D. McClelland's theory of needs
D. McClelland identifies three needs that have the greatest impact on an employee’s performance: power, success, involvement (see Table 2).
Table 2. D. McClelland's theory of needs
| Needs | a brief description of | Motivation management | |
| 1. | Complicity | Striving for friendly relations and active interaction with colleagues and clients. | Providing work with broad communication capabilities and constantly informing about the reactions of others to their actions. |
| 2. | Achievements | The desire for independence in work, personal responsibility for the results obtained. | Delegation of authority, independent area of work. |
| 3. | Rule | The desire to influence other people, control resources and processes. | Inclusion in the personnel reserve, career planning, training. |
The needs of participation, achievement and power in the concept of D. McClelland are not mutually exclusive: the manifestation of the influence of these needs on human behavior strongly depends on their mutual influence.
F. Herzberg's theory of motivation
In the literature, F. Herzberg’s theory of motivation is often called the theory of motivational hygiene or the theory of “social man.”
F. Herzberg identified two groups of incentives for intensifying a person’s work activity: hygienic, motivational (see Table 3).
Hygiene motives are motives that create the mood for work; they can be both motivators and demotivators of work activity.
The manager's goal is to create conditions so that hygiene factors become motivators of work activity. F. Herzberg considers motivating factors to be those that always contribute to increasing the efficiency of workers.
Table 3. F. Herzberg's model
Hygiene factors | Motivating factors (motivators) |
| • Salary; • Social benefits; • Working conditions; • Status; • Climate at the enterprise; • Working atmosphere, environment; • Attitude towards superiors and colleagues. | • Interesting work: exciting questions, versatility, opportunity to improve your knowledge; • Independence and authority, your own area of work; • Opportunity to achieve tangible results; • Recognition of achievements, expressed in increased income, powers, degree of difficulty of assigned tasks; • Professional training and advanced training as a continuous process. |
Consequently, if we eliminate the factors of employee dissatisfaction with the work environment, then it is possible to form the motives of his work activity using factors of job satisfaction.
Table 4 shows the basic principles of enriching the content of work to motivate work activity.
Table 4. Principles for enriching the content of work according to F. Herzberg
| Principle | Motivation Factors Involved |
| 1. Eliminate some controls while maintaining responsibility. | Responsibility and sense of achievement. |
| 2. Increase employee responsibility for the results of their work. | Responsibility and recognition. |
| 3. Allocate the employee a complete block of work (part, department, etc.). | Responsibility, sense of achievement and recognition. |
| 4. Give the employee additional authority. | Responsibility, sense of achievement and recognition. |
| 5. Periodically consult with the employee himself, and not with his immediate superior. | Internal recognition, self-esteem. |
| 6. Offer the employee new, increasingly difficult tasks. | Professional growth and training. |
| 7. Assign employees tasks that require special knowledge and skills. | Responsibility, professional growth and training. |
The groups of needs proposed by different authors of substantive theories are quite clearly correlated with each other (see Fig. 4).
Rice. 4.
PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Process theories of motivation are based on the assumption that an individual's behavior is a function of his perceptions and expectations associated with a particular situation and the possible consequences of his chosen type of behavior.
Three main procedural theories can be distinguished: 1. Expectancy theory; 2. Theory of justice; 3. Reinforcement theory.
V. Vroom's expectancy theory
It is based on the principle that the more an employee’s expectations are met, the more effective his work will be. V. Vroom identifies 3 main expectations of an employee in the labor process: that his labor efforts bring concrete results, according to which he will receive the expected reward (see Fig. 5).
Rice. 5. V. Vroom’s model of motivation
Valence is the perceived degree of relative satisfaction (dissatisfaction) that occurs when receiving a reward. If there is no direct connection between the effort expended and the results achieved, then motivation will weaken.
S. Adams' theory of justice
According to equity theory, people subjectively determine the ratio of reward received to effort expended, and then relate it to the rewards of other people doing similar work.
If a comparison shows that a colleague received more compensation for the same work, then the employee experiences psychological stress; to restore justice, it is necessary to either change the level of effort expended or change the reward.
Experts note that usually when people believe that they are not being paid extra, they begin to work less intensively. If they feel they are overpaid, they are less likely to change their behavior and activities.
B. Skinner's theory of motivation enhancement
Shows the dependence of employee motivation on their past experience.
According to B. Skinner's theory, the presence of stimuli causes a certain behavior in a person, depending on the consequences of which it is repeated or not. Repeated repetitions of the same results lead to the formation of a certain behavioral attitude in a person.
Porter-Lawler model
L. Porter and E. Lawler combined elements of expectancy theory and justice theory in their theory of motivation (see Figure 6).
Rice. 6. Porter-Lawler integrative model
According to the model, the results achieved depend on the efforts made, the abilities and characteristics of a person, as well as on his awareness of his role in the labor process. The level of effort expended in turn depends on the value of the reward and the extent to which the person believes that there is a strong connection between the effort expended and the possible reward. Achieving the required level of performance may entail internal rewards (satisfaction from the work performed, a sense of competence and self-esteem) and external rewards (supervisor praise, bonus, promotion).
Satisfaction is the result of external and internal rewards, taking into account their fairness. Without satisfaction there can be no effective work.
D. Atkinson's theory of work motivation
It is based on the position that an employee’s behavior is the result of the interaction of individual qualities of a person and the situation, its perception. Every person has two motives - the motive of success ( Mu
) and the motive to avoid failures (
Mn
). These motives are quite stable and are formed in the process of learning and work; they manifest a person’s desire for a certain level of need satisfaction.
In addition to personal qualities, a person’s behavior is influenced by 2 situational variables: the probability of success with which the employee expects the completion of his activity ( Wu
) and the attractiveness of success (stimulus value) for the individual (
Pu
). Moreover, the attractiveness of success is directly related to the probability of success according to formula 1:
Formula 1.
Pu = 1 – Wu
(1)
Thus, the higher the probability of success, the lower its attractiveness.
The desire for success ( Su
), which expresses the strength of motivation, can be expressed by formula 2:
Formula 2.
Su = Mu
*
Woo
*
Poo
(2)
According to this formula, the desire for success will be maximum when the probability of success is 0.5, because Wu's work
*
Pu
in this case is maximum. But when determining the desire for success, it is necessary to take into account the motive for success, which is expressed differently among different employees.
Any specific situation activates the motive for success and at the same time the motive that encourages you to avoid failures .
.
In this case, the sum of the probability of expecting success Wu
and the probability of failure
Bn
is equal to 1.
According to D. Atkinson's theory, people who are more success-oriented prefer tasks of average complexity, because in this case, the degree of risk is lower, although the attractiveness of success is less. At the same time, employees who accept failure for the sake of the high attractiveness of possible achievement of the goal prefer extreme tasks on the principle of “do or die”; such employees belong to the so-called “risky” personality type. It is advisable to entrust the first group of employees with those tasks that absolutely must be completed within the allotted time frame, while the second group of employees is best used when it is necessary to find atypical solutions.
Thus, procedural theories of motivation are aimed at developing such an employee’s work behavior that will ensure the effectiveness of his work activity. Process theories of motivation are more universal compared to substantive theories of motivation, but, unfortunately, do not take into account the entire range of human needs.
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McClelland's theory
McClelland's theory differs from Maslow's theory, which focuses on satisfying existing needs rather than creating or developing them.
McClelland identified three basic needs:
- Achievement: The need to achieve and demonstrate competence or mastery.
- Belonging: The need for love, belonging and relatedness.
- Power: the need to control one's work or the work of others.
McClelland argues that we all have these three needs in one form or another, regardless of age, gender, race or cultural background. Each person's needs are learned through their life experiences and are not innate. This is why this theory is sometimes called the learned needs theory.
For example, while some people may desire power, not everyone wants to be powerful at any cost. Likewise, while some people avoid attention at all costs, many still want a little praise. Most people do not exist at the extremes of every need.
| Need for achievement | Need for power | Need to belong |
| Perform difficult tasks, set records, or do something that has not been done before. | Desire to be responsible for others. | Follow the social norms of the organization for fear of rejection. |
| Results must be controlled and based on effort, not external factors. | The joy of victories and competitions. | Enjoy collaboration, but dislike competitive situations. |
| Receive feedback on your work. | Enjoying status and motivating others. | Avoid risky situations and uncertainty. |
| Avoid high and low risk situations. Low-risk situations provide little sense of achievement, and high-risk situations are too much out of control. | Using only winning arguments. | The desire to belong to a group. |
How to use in practice
- Determine the needs of each team member. If you don't have much experience identifying employee personality types or simply don't know your team very well, you can ask them to rate the importance of each need in McClelland's theory for themselves.
- Decide how you will adjust your style and approach to each team member.
The main points in McClelland's theory:
- The Three Needs Theory can help you identify the key motivators driving your employees and then use that information to help get the most out of each team member.
- You can do this by changing the way you give feedback, your goals, your leadership style, and the way you try to motivate them.
All the main theories of work motivation are clear and concise
The process of motivation is complex and ambiguous. There are different approaches to describing the process of emergence and implementation of employee needs.
These approaches are reflected in various theories of motivation.
Each of these techniques has something to offer managers, and their different elements complement each other in many ways. Managers should be able to identify the needs, abilities and goals of employees, and also take into account differences in preferences for the type of reward.
Conventionally, all theories of motivation can be divided into substantive and procedural. Content theories
focus on the internal needs of the individual that give impetus, direct, support and stop this behavior.
Process theories
provide a description and analysis of how behavior is initiated, directed, maintained, and terminated.
There are three main types of work motivation:
- Material.
- Social (moral).
- Organizational (administrative).
Among the motives of work, decisive importance is given to motives associated with material interest, since they influence the choice of profession, place of work, and determine the attitude towards work.
Material motivation
is implemented through a wage system, a system of differentiated accounting for the types and effectiveness of labor, a system for selling money received for labor (development of the sphere of spending earned labor income). Additional incentives include payment of transportation costs, subsidies for food, payment of educational expenses, medical care, tourist trips on weekends and during vacations, payment of life insurance costs for employees and their dependents, accident insurance, etc.
Social or moral motivation
is based on a person’s moral values, the employee’s awareness of his work as a certain duty to society, and an understanding of the value and usefulness of this work. This category also includes incentives associated with the creative richness and content of work, its relatively favorable conditions, relationships in the work team, relationships between an employee and his manager, the possibility of professional growth, self-improvement and self-expression.
Organizational (administrative) motivation
relies on the right of the administration (employer) enshrined in law to demand that employees comply with accepted labor rules. The basis of this type of motivation is labor discipline, and its result is disciplinary liability, which provides for measures of influence on the employee for improper performance of his duties.
Characteristics of theories of work motivation
| Name of theory, authors | Basic concept |
| Classical theory of scientific management (Frederick Taylor, Frank Gilbreath, Harry Grant, etc.) | Employees of an organization are significantly interested in work if material reward is closely related to the results of their work. Monetary incentives are the only basis for high production performance |
| Theories X and Y (Douglas McGregor) | Some people don't like to work “innately”, so they can only work well under constant supervision and coercion (Theory X). Others themselves motivate the need to work and find inner satisfaction in work - however, if the necessary conditions are created for this (Theory Y) |
| Theory Z (William Ouchi) | Caring for each employee of the organization, the quality of work life, involving employees in group decision-making - these are the prerequisites for unlocking their potential |
| Human Relations Theory (Frederick J. Roethlisberger, Elton Mayo, Rensis Likert) | The key factor of motivation is the leader. It is the manager who must make the employee feel that he is a member of the team and occupies an important place in it. At the same time, a democratic leadership style is professed |
| Hierarchy of needs theory (Abraham Maslow) | There are five levels in the hierarchy of needs: 1) physiological needs; 2) the need for security (both physical and economic); 3) the need for love, belonging (social needs); 4) the need for respect, recognition; 5) the need for self-expression. If the needs of lower levels are satisfied, then to motivate the employee to work, the next, higher level of needs must be activated. |
| Factor "2" (Frederick Herzberg) | In the two-factor model of work motivation, two large categories are distinguished: 1) hygiene factors; 2) motivators. Hygiene factors, support factors (company policy and management, working conditions, wages, interpersonal relationships with the manager, the degree of direct control over work) are preventive in nature and can cause a feeling of dissatisfaction in the employee, but they are not motivating factors. Motivators include higher-order needs, such as production achievements, social recognition, work itself, responsibility and career opportunities. The task of management is to eliminate irritants (satisfy basic needs) and use motivators (satisfy higher needs) |
| Learned Needs Theory (David McLelland) | Three dominant needs are identified: 1) involvement (affiliation); 2) power; 3) success. By establishing reward patterns (recognition, promotion, achieving a certain social position, etc.) and reinforcing the expectation that rewards will result from better behavior or performance, motivation for more productive and high-quality work can be increased. |
| ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer) | There are three groups of needs: 1) existence needs (survival, physical well-being, wages) - Existence Needs; 2) needs for connections (interpersonal connections, establishing contacts, respect, personality assessment) - Relatedness Needs; 3) needs for growth (internal desire for the development of creative potential, for self-realization) - Growth Needs. According to ERG theory, rigid hierarchy is rejected |
| Goal Setting Theory (Edwin A. Loke) | The conscious needs of the employee determine his actions. The goal will influence the effort exerted and influence the choice of behavior |
| Behavior change theory, reinforcement theory (Burres Frederick Skinner) | Behavior can be controlled, refined and changed thanks to certain changes in the system of rewards and punishments |
| The theory of preferences and expectations VIE (Victor Vroom) | The motivation of an employee's behavior is determined by three factors: 1) the strength of confidence that specific actions will lead to a specific result; 2) the strength of confidence that a specific result will lead to a specific reward; 3) attractiveness or acceptability of the reward. The strength of motivation is a function of the sum of the valences of the results (including instrumentality) multiplied by the expectation, and valence (V - Valence) is the stability of the employee’s preferences regarding a specific result (Y = +1, 0, –1). Instrumentality or significance (I - Instrumentality) is the standard of subjective assessment of the employee: whether the initial action leads or does not lead to achieving the goal (–1 < I < +1). Expectation (E - Expectancy) is the probability of achieving a certain result (0 < E < 1) |
| Theory of justice, equality or equity (J. Stacy Adams) | The main source of work motivation is the impartiality or fairness that the employee expects to encounter in the work team. If the ratio of “output-output” that an employee receives (remuneration) to “input-input” in the performance of work turns out to be unequal from his point of view, similar to the ratio of other workers, then this is a sign of injustice and, accordingly, a prerequisite for the emergence of psychological stress. In accordance with this theory, the adequacy of remuneration is assessed by the ratio of “input” and “output” |
| Integrated Process Theory of Motivation (Lyman Porter, Edward Lawler) | Includes elements of expectancy theory and equity theory. Based on five variables: 1) effort expended; 2) perception, expectation; 3) the results obtained; 4) remuneration; 5) degree of satisfaction. Key takeaway: productive work leads to satisfaction |
| The theory of “mathematical” expectation (John Atkinson, N. Fizer) | An employee’s motivation to implement a certain task is a function whose components are the strength of the motive for productive work, the subjective probability (expectation) of success and the attractiveness of the task (valence) |
| Attribution Theory (Fritz Heider) | Internal forces (personal qualities, such as abilities, efforts, fatigue) and external forces (properties of the environment), complementing each other, determine the behavior of the employee. Attribution theory is a theory about how people explain the behavior of others: whether they attribute the reason for actions to the person's internal dispositions (character traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations |
| Control Theory (William Glasser) | It is associated with the employee’s feelings, namely how much control he has over his production activities. It is believed that job satisfaction depends on conscious control |
| Representation Theory (Michelle Jensen, William Mexing) | The key point of the theory is that the interests of the owners of an organization and its employees may differ, and this discrepancy can be reduced by establishing appropriate rewards |
| Theory by John P. Campbell, Marvin D. Dunnett, Edward E. Lawler, and Carl E. Wake Jr. | People are motivated by determining how urgent their needs and expectations are, how much their actions motivate them to achieve their goals, and what results others have achieved under similar circumstances. |
| Herbert Kaufman theory | Organizational and occupational specialization can develop workers' desire and ability to meet organizational goals |
| Robert Prestas theory | A threefold classification of organizational adaptation models is proposed: 1) “moving upward” - those who understand and accept all the values of the organization; 2) “indifferent” - those who reject such values and find personal satisfaction outside of work; 3) “ambivalent” - those who want to enjoy the benefits that the organization provides, but do not meet its requirements |
| Theory of Werner Siegert and Lucia Lang | The criterion for optimal motivation and rewards is ensuring mutual satisfaction of the organization (management) and the individual. Attention is focused on the emotional side of production problems |
| V. Arnold's theory | The effectiveness of motivation is determined by the direction and quality of efforts, and not by their summation. The productivity of motivation is enhanced by the energy of purposeful behavior, the advancement of the individual towards actions that are effective for the organization |
| Work Redesign Concept (J. Hackman and Greg Oldham) | Work motivation should be measured using the following five characteristics: 1) variety of work; 2) completeness of the work; 3) the significance of the work; 4) autonomy at work; 5) feedback (the ability to evaluate the results of one’s own efforts) |
| Thomas Stewart theory | Working with personnel requires the creation of comprehensive motivational programs. At the same time, employees of the organization receive into their hands four symbols of liberation: information, knowledge, power and reward. |
Natalya Fedorova
Elitarium
Process theories
Vroom's theory
The theory of expectancy motivation was developed by Victor H. Vroom and expanded by Porter and Lawler.
The theory is based on the assumption that our behavior is based on conscious choice from a set of possible alternative behaviors. According to expectancy theory, the behavior we choose will always be the one that maximizes our pleasure and minimizes our negative emotions.
This theory is intended to combine many elements of previous theories. It combines the perceptual aspects of justice theory with the behavioral aspects of other theories.
It basically comes down to this equation:
- M (motivation) is a value that determines how motivated a person will be by the situation in which he finds himself.
- E (expectancy) – a person’s perception that effort will lead to results. In other words, a person's assessment of the extent to which effort actually correlates with performance.
- I (facilitation) – a person’s perception that work will be rewarded, i.e. a person's assessment of how well the amount of compensation relates to the quality of performance.
- V (valence) – the perceived strength of the reward that will result from performance. If the reward is low, motivation will be low, even if duration and facilitation are high.
Note that the model is formulated in terms of extrinsic motivation, which asks, “What are the chances that I will be rewarded if I do a good job?” But for internal situations we will think differently: “How will I feel good if I can accomplish this?”
How to use in practice
- Expectancy theory can help understand how individual team members make decisions about behavioral alternatives in the workplace.
- The biggest benefit of Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation is that: Rewards should be tied directly to performance
- The method of selecting the reward must be transparent
- Awards must be deserved
- Rewards must be desirable
The main thing in Vroom's theory
Expectancy theory is a theory of motivation in the workplace. It says that a person on your team will be motivated when he believes he can achieve his goals and knows he will be rewarded for them, and he values the reward. This way, by properly rewarding all team members, you can create highly motivated staff and high-performing teams.
Skinner's theory
Confirmation motivation theory was developed by American psychologist B.F. Skinner. The theory states that people's inner needs can be ignored when you try to motivate them to behave in a certain way. For what? Because it assumes that people learn to change their behavior based on what happens to them by behaving in certain ways and using leverage.
Four factors that are levers of motivation:
- Positive confirmation is the reward you give an employee when they demonstrate a desired behavior. Positive confirmation encourages the employee to continue to demonstrate the behavior.
- Negative confirmation also uses rewards. Here the employee is rewarded for the desired behavior by removing something unpleasant.
- Punishment occurs when you use negative consequences in the workplace to deter or stop team members from engaging in undesirable behavior.
- Consequences refer to stopping positive reinforcements. You can stop the behavior by withdrawing the positive affirmation that led to the behavior.
To achieve the desired behavior change, reinforcement must be constant. There are two approaches you can use to provide reinforcement:
- Continuous confirmation occurs when a desired behavior is reinforced each time it is observed.
- Intermittent confirmation occurs when reinforcement is given periodically, this can be either a fixed day and time or intermittently.
How to use in practice
- Specify the desired behavior. If you want someone to change their behavior, the first thing you need to do is tell them your wishes. Do this as clearly and objectively as possible.
- The next step is to determine how often the behavior in question currently occurs.
- Reinforce the desired behavior. Next, you need to determine how and when you will reinforce the new behavior.
- Evaluate the change. The last step is to determine whether the new behavior you want is increasing fast enough.
The main thing in Skinner's theory
Reinforcement theory attempts to explain what motivates good and bad behavior in the workplace. It also gives us a mechanism to influence our team's behavior using what the theory calls confirmation, punishment, or extinction.
Confirmation refers to rewards that are used to encourage good behavior and punishments that are used to reduce bad behavior. A consequence is similar to punishment but involves the removal of a reward.
Why are theories of motivation needed?
Motivation theories provide insight into what makes an employee perform better. They give managers a tool to motivate employees and help them understand how to better manage their people. Therefore, it is not surprising that in the field of human resource management and organizational behavior, it is very important to focus on employee motivation.
Lack of knowledge about motivation theories may lead managers to think that monetary incentives are the only way to motivate staff, however, the theories have helped managers understand that people have different needs. You just need to be able to find out what these needs are and learn how to influence employees correctly. Motivation affects not only staff efficiency, but also retention, engagement, and job satisfaction.
- Psychology
Maslow's theory of motivation in brief and pyramid of needs
All human needs are based on physiological ones - those that are directly related to survival: food, water, air, sex, etc.
At the second level is the need for security and confidence in the future. Here we are talking about the fact that a person seeks protection from the dangers of the external environment.
At the next level of the pyramid are social needs (involvement). These are people’s feelings that arise in relation to the social whole: the environment, close people who would support it.
Further, on the fourth hierarchical link are the needs for respect and social recognition. People want to be valued, praised for their achievements, competence, and respected by people in authority.
The highest level is the need for self-expression and self-realization. It is necessary for a person to realize his personal potential.
